Chương trình nghiên cứu giải quyết GIS sự tham gia của công chúng, rộng rãi nói, phát triển theo hai hướng khác nhau. Trước tiên, có nghiên cứu kiểm tra việc sử dụng thông thường của công nghệ GIS tiêu chuẩn của các tổ chức có truyền thống mạnh mẽ của dân chủ trực tiếp, giải quyết các vấn đề về truy cập, và có hay không GIS này có thể trao quyền cho nhóm như thế, đặc biệt là những người đã chiếm một vị trí xã hội hay địa lý bên lề xã hội (x. Allen năm 1999;. | Chapter 3 Models for making GIS available to community organizations dimensions of difference and appropriateness Helga Leitner Robert B. McMaster Sarah Elwood Susanna McMaster and Eric Sheppard INTRODUCTION The research agenda addressing public participation GIS is broadly speaking evolving in two different directions. First there is research examining the conventional use of standard GIS technologies by organizations with strong traditions of direct democracy addressing issues of access and whether or not this GIS can empower such groups particularly those already occupying a marginalized social or geographical location cf. Allen 1999 Jordan 1999 Kyem 1999 . Second some researchers concerned that such GISs are not necessarily empowering are beginning to examine alternatives to conventional use of GIS cf. Krygier 1996 Harris and Weiner 1998 Shiffer 1998 . These alternatives extend from the integration of narratives and local knowledge within current GIS software to multimedia GIS the design of collaborative decision support systems and the use of non-hierar-chical systems of information flow. While the latter body of work was the inspiration for theorizing GIS2 and then PPGIS and began in discussions at the NCGIA Initiative 19 specialist meeting Harris and Weiner 1996 this chapter is within the former tradition. We seek to investigate the appropriateness of current GIS technologies for neighbourhood and grassroots organizations henceforth community organizations in their tasks of articulating and pursuing the interests of those whom they are supposed to represent. The work reported here is based on a variety of experiences with models designed to make GIS available to community organizations in Minneapolis and St Paul cf. Elwood and Leitner 1998 . Rather than report in detail on these experiences we seek to abstract from them and to position our experiences within a conceptual framework. This chapter is organized as follows. First a discussion is provided in .
