Receptors for the key female reproductive hormones, estrogens, are found throughout the entire brain including prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, striatum, and brain stem. The neurotransmitter systems involved in depression (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, cetylcholine, GABA, glutamate) are regulated by the action of estrogen. Research suggests that women may have increased susceptibility to depression and mood disorders during two key lifecycle transitions: pregnancy and the postpartum period, and perimenopause. Approximately 10-15 percent of women experience postpartum depression. The risk of depression increases during perimenopause. University of Pennsylvania researchers Freeman, Sammel, Lin, and Nelson found an increased risk of a.
