States from 1991 onwards. Using these monthly data, we document a statisti- cally significant smart money effect in the United States whose magnitude is comparable to that of the United Kingdom. However, even at the quarterly data frequency, the post-1990 period is suggestive of the presence of smart money in the United States (whereas the 1970 to 1990 period is not). These conclusions hold irrespective of whether the momentum factor is taken into consideration. Thus, Sapp and Tiwari’s results are due to the weight they put on the pre-1991 period, and to their use of quarterly data. The conclusions of Gruber and Zheng about the presence of smart.
