Even though we re-analysed data from the most representative data source available at this moment, the ECHP, there is no guarantee that what has been found in a single data set will be reproduced in other data sets. There is an urgent need for analysis of additional data sets, including data on new EU member states. In addition, systematic reviews or meta-analyses are needed to assess the causal effect of ill-health on earnings in the European Union. Given the conservative nature of many of our assumptions and approaches, the full economic costs and potential benefits are likely to be.