These adult ESOL learners may reside in the United States perma- nently, or in some cases for indefi nite but long periods of time (in contrast to international university students who are typically expected to return to their home countries). Also included here are the adult children of these immigrants and refugees—children who arrived in the United States late enough in life that their own spoken English is noticeably nonnative and not their dominant language. 2 The vast majority of second-language acquisition research has been done with elementary and secondary school children or with university- based adult learners with generally high levels of.
