An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology part 5. This one of a kind encyclopedia presents the entire field of technology from rudimentary agricultural tools to communication satellites in this first of its kind reference source. Following an introduction that discusses basic tools, devices, and mechanisms, the chapters are grouped into five parts that provide detailed information on materials, power and engineering, transportation, communication and calculation, and technology and society, revealing how different technologies have together evolved to produce enormous changes in the course of history | INTRODUCTION Considerable advances were made in the development of textile machinery. The rope-driven spinning wheel replaced hand spinning while the weaving loom developed into its box-shaped frame with roller suspended reed and shedding mechanism. Water-power was sometimes applied to spinning as well as to the fulling of cloth. These developments came in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Between AD 1100 and 1400 universities were founded in many European cities particularly in Italy signalling the start of a period of higher learning for its own sake. Towards the end of this period the technique of paper-making originating in China about AD 100 reached Europe via the Middle East North Africa and Spain where it had existed since 1100. By 1320 it had reached Germany paving the way to the printing of books. Apart from the building of many fortified castles and some notable manor houses the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were the peak of the construction of Europe s many cathedrals marvels of architecture their lofty slenderness seeming to defy the laws of nature. One of the most grandiose and eloquent was begun at Chartres in 1194 and completed in 1260. In the more prosaic field of vernacular architecture the use of chimneys which started about 1200 added considerably to the comfort of the occupants. Another improvement was the introduction of window glass on a small scale. Though it was a Roman invention its use did not become at all common until the seventeenth century. Stained glass of course was of earlier date its use at Augsburg cathedral dating from 1065. THE THIRD AGE THE FIRST MACHINE AGE Timekeeping The history of timekeeping at least by mechanical means is very much the history of scientific instrument making see also Chapter 15 . Although scientists may have conceived the instruments they needed for astronomical observation a separate trade of craftsmen with the necessary skills in brass and iron working in grinding optical lenses in dividing .
