Tham khảo tài liệu 'an encyclopaedia of language_02', ngoại ngữ, nhật - pháp - hoa- others phục vụ nhu cầu học tập, nghiên cứu và làm việc hiệu quả | 56 LANGUAGE AS FORM AND PATTERN further parentheses. This also applies to the structure of 24 b in which an infinitive clause-like element to a verb phrase has been successively embedded as a second elaborator of a verb alongside its direct object with the infinitival proclitic to acting as a marker of the embedding. Such differences between the embedded and non-embedded forms of the structure are akin to a transformational relationship in that an indicative verb form corresponds to an infinitive or a subjunctive in some languages cf. also the Latin accusative-and-infinitive construction in which the embedded subject has the accusative corresponding to the normal nominative. In an embedding one element is downgraded and used as a constituent or constituent of a constituent of a higher element to which it is in principle equal formulaically X0 A X1 or X0 A B C X1 . In co-ordination two similar elements are added together as equals in a combination which could have been represented by one of them alone formulaically X0 X . Xn where n 1. This normally means that each of the co-ordinated items is of the same class as the other s and of the whole. For instance in the examples of 25 a b and c both the co-ordinated elements and the whole structure are semantically related nouns noun phrases and verb phrases respectively 25 a my mother and father those cups and saucers b my mother and my headmaster John s new cups and my German coffee c I ve dropped a cup and broken it. d plaice and chips and strawberries and cream and goulash and rice and apple-pie and custard . In co-ordinations then a compound element paradoxically consists of a series of elements equivalent to itself just as a compound word is superficially often a sequence of potential words . This has the consequence that co-ordination within coordination is possible as in 25 d . Both embedding and co-ordination involve combining constituents of the same size and class. We have already discussed the question of class