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PRIMATES AND PHILOSOPHERS Part 2

Ngày nay Bộ Linh trưởng được chia thành hai phân nhánh là Strepsirrhini và Haplorhini. Trong nhánh Haplorhini có họ Người (Hominidae = khỉ dạng người), và loài người (Homo sapiens). Trừ con người sống trên các lục địa trên Trái Đất, hầu hết loài Linh trưởng sống trong các vùng rừng nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới của Châu Mỹ, châu Phi và châu Á. | 4 FRANS DE WAAL never came naturally to us. He saw it as a step we took reluctantly and by covenant only which is artificial Hobbes 1991 1651 120 . More recently Rawls 1972 proposed a milder version of the same view adding that humanity s move toward sociality hinged on conditions of fairness that is the prospect of mutually advantageous cooperation among equals. These ideas about the origin of the well-ordered society remain popular even though the underlying assumption of a rational decision by inherently asocial creatures is untenable in light of what we know about the evolution of our species. Hobbes and Rawls create the illusion of human society as a voluntary arrangement with self-imposed rules assented to by free and equal agents. Yet there never was a point at which we became social descended from highly social ancestors a long line of monkeys and apes we have been group-living forever. Free and equal people never existed. Humans started out if a starting point is discernible at all as interdependent bonded and unequal. We come from a long lineage of hierarchical animals for which life in groups is not an option but a survival strategy. Any zoologist would classify our species as obligatorily gregarious. Having companions offers immense advantages in locating food and avoiding predators Wrangham 1980 van Schaik 1983 . Inasmuch as group-oriented individuals leave more offspring than those less socially inclined e.g. Silk et al. 2003 sociality has become ever more deeply ingrained in primate biology and psychology. If any decision to establish societies was made therefore credit should go to Mother Nature rather than to ourselves. This is not to dismiss the heuristic value of Rawls s original position as a way of getting us to reflect on what kind of MORALLY EVOLVED 5 society we would like to live in. His original position refers to a purely hypothetical situation characterized so as to lead to certain conceptions of justice Rawls 1972 12 . But even if we do