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Ebook: Handbook of psychology phần 8

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năm 1985 của tồn kho Personality NEO, hiện đang có sẵn dưới hình thức sửa đổi như NEO PI-R (Costa và McCrae, 1992). Giống như 16-PF, NEO PI-R được dự định như một biện pháp của các đặc điểm tính cách thông thường nhưng đã chứng tỏ hữu ích trong việc đánh giá các vấn đề nhân cách ở những người bị xáo trộn (xem Piedmont, 1998). Mặc dù thời gian vẫn chưa nói với NEO PR-tôi cuối cùng sẽ giá vé đối với tần số của nó sử dụng, đã có một . | Current Issues in Forensic Psychology 407 there had been at least 450 cases in 26 states in which eyewitness researchers had testified as experts Fulero 1993 . It has been pointed out that no such problem of admissibility was raised in the 1950s when clinical psychologists began to testify on mental disorders or when social psychologists first appeared to describe the debilitating personality consequences of segregation Loh 1981 p 332 . One reason for the cool legal reception to eyewitness researchers is that the law requires particularized proof rather than general proof e.g. average responses as shown by research and the law is reluctant to assume that there is a one-to-one correspondence between potential unreliability of eyewitnesses which is conceded and its actual impact in a particular trial which must be proven . Another issue is that many courts have assumed that awareness of the fallibility of eyewitness evidence is already within the common knowledge of most jurors leaving no need for expert testimony Brigham et al. 1999 . The type of issue studied may also make a difference. Wells 1978 1993 asserted that psychologists should concentrate on studying system variables that is factors that are changeable within the system e.g. police procedures interrogation techniques fairness of lineups rather than estimator variables whose impact in any particular situation can only be estimated e.g. level of stress weapon focus race . Wells asserted that because of their potential usefuless for improving procedures the results of system-variable research would be more readily accepted by the legal system than would estimator-variable research. It remains to be seen whether the legal system will become more receptive in the future to expert testimony about the memory of eyewitnesses or whether the results of eyewitness research find their way into the legal system by other means e.g. via science-translation briefs . Clinical Forensic Evaluations Little research was .